DGAP_1

Developing good academic practice

About this free course

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Contents

- Introduction

- Learning outcomes

- 1 What is good academic practice?

- 1.1 Good academic practice

- 1.2 Demonstrating your academic abilities

- 1.3 Reproducing someone else’s words

- 1.4 Inappropriate academic practice

- 1.5 When does poor academic practice become a major problem?

- 1.6 Summary

- 1.7 Quiz

- 2 Writing in your own words

- 2.1 What do we mean by ‘writing in your own words’?

- 2.2 Quiz

- 3 Collaboration versus collusion

- 3.1 Good collaborative practices

- 3.2 What is collusion?

- 3.3 Using extracts from spoken and online discussions

- 3.4 Collaborative group answers

- 3.5 Quiz

- 4 Common knowledge

- 4.1 General examples

- 4.2 Subject-specific examples

- 4.3 Quiz

- 5 Referencing

- 5.1 Why should you cite references?

- 5.2 Alphabetical referencing

- 5.3 Numerical referencing

- 5.4 Quoting

- 5.5 Quiz

- 6 Why do students plagiarise?

- 6.1 Common problems

- 6.2 Quiz

- 7 Test your understanding of good academic practices

- Conclusion

- Keep on learning

- Acknowledgements

Introduction

This free course, Developing good academic practice, is designed to help you develop good academic practice in your studies, and when producing assignments and completing assessments.

It’s important for you to understand the rules of the academic world right from the beginning of your studies.

We’re not asking you to develop good academic practice for the sake of it. These guidelines will help you with your writing
– a key graduate skill.

This course will also help you avoid being accused of plagiarism, but that in itself is not the complete objective; we want
you to develop good academic writing skills.

We will explain what we mean by academic practice, and then unpick some of the ideas in more detail, such as writing in your
own words, the difference between collaboration and collusion, what’s common knowledge in your area of study, and how to reference
other people’s ideas and writing. We will also examine some of the reasons why some students have been accused of plagiarism.

Just to reassure you, we stress that everybody can develop good writing skills. If you are new to the academic world, your
university or higher learning institution will do its best to help you to develop your skills, and will focus on the development
of good academic practice rather than penalising poor practice. However, once you become an experienced student you will be
expected to follow the rules and plagiarism will be punished when it’s detected. However, these cases are rare and usually
arise from deliberate cheating.

The time spent studying the topics covered in the course early in your studies is a valuable investment that will help you
throughout your studies and elsewhere.

The course is designed to be dipped in and out of. Perhaps you’d like a refresher on a specific area? Perhaps you’d like to
work through the whole course from beginning to end – it’s entirely up to you. But before you begin, take the quiz below to
get a sense of how much of the concept ‘good academic practice’ you understand, and where you could improve. If you think
you already understand what this phrase means, and the skills it involves, you’ll be able to take the quiz now and identify
the areas you need to brush up. Once you’ve studied these areas you can then retake the quiz to confirm that you now understand
them.

If you’re new to university study we recommend that after you take the quiz, you work through the course section by section,
and take the quiz at the end of each section, and then retake the quiz at the end of resource to see how far you’ve come.

Introductory level: good academic practices quiz

Advanced level: good academic practices quiz

Find out more about studying with The Open University by visiting our online prospectus

Learning outcomes

After studying this course, you should be able to:

- demonstrate knowledge of good academic practice and how to build it into your studies

- understand how to avoid inappropriate or bad academic practice

- show knowledge of techniques on how to avoid plagiarism.

1 What is good academic practice?

Good academic practice is about making sure that anyone who reads your work can easily identify your thoughts and ideas on
a subject, and can distinguish these from the thoughts and ideas of others.

‘Academic integrity’ is an all-encompassing term. Universities can use it to define the good academic practice that enables
every individual to demonstrate how much and what they have learned within their subject or programme of study, and that they
are able to put this into practice. It also allows tutors and other students to fairly assess the extent of learning progression
made by each individual, and encourages everyone to respect and acknowledge the work of others.

‘Plagiarism’, however, is considered to be inappropriate practice. This is another wide-ranging term: it can cover everything
from poor study skills and a lack of understanding of what is expected at your level of study, to straightforward fraud in
the form of intentional cheating. This resource will help you gain a deeper understanding and an appreciation of how to develop
your good academic practices, which in turn will help you to avoid plagiarism.

1.1 Good academic practice

For most students studying at undergraduate level or on a taught postgraduate programme, your assignments will be the
main work reviewed by others. When you produce answers to assignments, it is important that the person reviewing it:

- knows that the words on the page originated with you, the author;

- can easily distinguish your own thoughts and the ideas you use to emphasise your viewpoint or illustrate a specific point.

In other words, the assignment should be a true reflection of your understanding of the subject and it should demonstrate
your academic skills and abilities.

Writing in your own words and applying good academic practice is not simply about showing others the depth of your understanding
and current skills. It is also about helping you to make sense of what you are studying; in other words, ‘internalising’ what
you are reading and learning by putting it into context and into practice.

Developing your academic writing skills will also:

- allow you to develop confidence in using ideas and examples, and in making the course and the topics it covers ‘your own’;

- help you to recall the materials when you revise at the end of the course;

- put you in a much stronger position when preparing for the end-of-course examination;

- enable you to apply what you have learned in this and other courses, as well as in your working life.

In summary, academic integrity and writing in your own words are central components of effective learning development and
will help make things more intelligible and pertinent to you.

1.2 Demonstrating your academic abilities

So why is it important to always demonstrate a true reflection of your academic abilities to your tutor and others?

One argument is that this allows your university to grade your work and level of academic development in an appropriate and
fair manner. There will be a range of students within any course or programme whose academic abilities vary significantly
from the ‘average’ and the degree classification system must be able to measure and recognise each student’s abilities. Thus,
in fairness to all students, it is essential that the work you present for grading really is a true reflection of your abilities
and does not consist of work produced by other people.

How would you feel about other students who seemed to be doing better than you and were getting better grades, but who cheated
by copying their answers from elsewhere or by submitting work that they hadn’t produced?

There is a very strong argument that says that by ensuring your assignments are a true reflection of your understanding, you
can get an accurate idea of how well you are progressing with your studies. The grades you achieve can also help you to assess
your strengths and weaknesses, and allow you to focus your attention on areas that need more development to ensure progress.

More importantly, by submitting work that you have produced fairly and in accordance with good academic practices, your tutor
can give you accurate feedback and help with your specific learning needs and abilities; this form of individual and personalised
support is the best form of teaching anyone could want!

1.3 Reproducing someone else’s words

Academia is all about using the work, thoughts and ideas of others to create new meaning and understanding. However, it is
vital that you demonstrate your academic integrity and acknowledge the use of other people’s work in a fair and transparent
manner, allowing others to see what your own thoughts and ideas are.

As such, it is often advantageous to quote someone else’s words or to make reference to their work in your assignments, to
provide evidence of a breadth of reading and/or provide some support to what you are saying.

To ensure you acknowledge other people’s work fairly and in accordance with expected practices, you may find the section on
referencing a helpful one to review.

1.4 Inappropriate academic practice

Poor to inappropriate academic practice takes many forms. It can range from the consequence of not understanding what is required
at this level of study, or not having the confidence in your own abilities, to out-and-out intentional fraud.

For example, poor academic practice could be the result of the following scenarios.

- A student finds they do not have sufficient time to answer an assignment properly and decides to ‘borrow’ (i.e. copy) some
words or sections from a book, website or colleague. This is plagiarism.

- A student lacking confidence in their English skills believes that whatever they write will never be as good as the material
in their course book or from other sources. They decide it is better to copy it out than try to write an answer in their own
words. This is plagiarism.

- A student gets a friend or family member to answer an assignment question for them because they have expertise in this area
and so will get better marks than if the student tries to do it themselves. This is still plagiarism, but it is also intentional
fraud.

- A student comes across the ‘right answer’ to part of their assignment on a website, and cuts and pastes this into their assignment.
This is intentional plagiarism.

- A student doesn’t quite understand what they have to do to answer one of their assignment questions but has found the relevant
section in their course book. They copy out the section but change a few of the connecting words, change the order of a couple
of sentences and add in another couple of examples to make it their own work. This is plagiarism.

All these scenarios are examples of plagiarism and show a lack of academic integrity. Because the words submitted by the student did not originate from them – they are all the words of other people – their work gives a false
impression of the student’s own academic ability.

Of course you can use a range of materials as helpful sources, but the words used in the assignment need to be your own and must reflect your understanding. To understand more about writing in your own words, look at the section, ‘Writing in your own words’.

1.5 When does poor academic practice become a major problem?

Poor academic practice becomes a major problem when there is an intent to cheat – to try to pass off someone else’s work as
your own. Here’s a simple definition.

Plagiarism is using the work of other people to gain some form of benefit without formally acknowledging that the work came
from someone else.

Plagiarism always involves three main ‘players’:

- The plagiarist – the person who plagiarises. Sometimes, through ignorance or negligence, a plagiarist may not realise (or may claim not
to realise) that they are plagiarising. However, we expect and assume that, apart from students studying courses very early
in their study career, all students will be fully aware of the plagiarism procedures and issues. We therefore consider that
‘intention’ is present in all plagiarism or cases of poor academic practice. It is no defence to claim ignorance if you are
an experienced student.

- The victim – the person who is plagiarised. Sometimes the person being plagiarised is fully aware of the other person plagiarising and
actively cooperates in the process by colluding, either freely or by coercion. In this case the ‘victim’ is deemed to be directly
involved in the plagiarism, and, depending on circumstances, may themselves be subject to a penalty.

- The monitor – the person who discovers and deals with the plagiarism. Plagiarism is detected and monitored at the Open University by
sophisticated methods, including electronic analysis. It is always handled with strict formal procedures by an experienced
monitoring team. Various factors are taken into account, including level of study, any previous plagiarism offences and the
nature of any apparent collusion.

This resource provides guidance on developing academic integrity and helps you to avoid poor academic practice.

Universities cannot always distinguish between poor academic practice (accidental plagiarism) and deliberate cheating (plagiarism).
The Open University takes the position that without evidence to the contrary, all plagiarism is a result of deliberate cheating.
As such, it is important to develop good academic practice to avoid the accusation of plagiarism and any resulting penalty.

1.6 Summary

If you submit an assignment that contains work that is not your own and you do not indicate this to the marker (i.e. by acknowledging
your sources), you are committing plagiarism.

This might occur in an assignment when you:

- use a choice phrase or sentence that you have come across;

- copy directly from a text word-for-word;

- paraphrase the words from a text very closely;

- use text downloaded from the internet;

- borrow statistics or assembled facts from another person or source;

- copy or download figures, photographs, pictures or diagrams without acknowledging your sources;

- copy from the notes or essays of a fellow student;

- copy from your own notes on a text, tutorial, video or lecture that contain direct quotations.

Plagiarism may occur inadvertently due to inexperience. So read carefully all the study advice, especially statements concerning
plagiarism and how to reference your sources.

1.7 Quiz

You can check your understanding about this topic by answering some questions about academic integrity. Use the links below
to access a quiz with questions appropriate for your level of study.

Introductory level: what is good academic practice? quiz

Advanced level: what is good academic practice? quiz

2 Writing in your own words

2.1 What do we mean by ‘writing in your own words’?

When you paraphrase another author’s writing, you rewrite their argument using your own words, phrasing and interpreting their
text in your own way.

Click on the media player below to listen to David Mayle outlining his expectations of students writing in their own words.

Audio content is not available in this format.

David Mayle

View transcript - David Mayle

2.2 Quiz

You can check your understanding about this topic by answering some questions about academic integrity. Use the links below
to access a quiz with questions appropriate for your level of study.

Introductory level: writing in your own words quiz

Advanced level: writing in your own words quiz

3 Collaboration versus collusion

One of the most effective ways to check whether you understand what you are studying and whether you can apply this new knowledge
is to work with other students and discuss your learning with them.

3.1 Good collaborative practices

In both formal and informal examples, good collaborative practices involve two or more individuals working together to help
each other understand:

- what a specific concept or topic means (often by explaining it in different ways to that presented in the course materials);

- how this information can be applied to other areas of their study.

It may also involve discussing and developing general approaches on how to solve a particular problem or task, but without
going into specific details or giving away the precise method or answer. Collaboration linked to assessed work stops at the
level of general discussions, with each student writing up their answer individually, in their own time and in their own words.

In summary, good collaborative learning means working collectively on a topic or task to help each other understand what is
involved and/or what needs to be done. Answers to any assessed work are then completed by each student in their own words.
Good collaboration does not involve discussing the precise answers or giving an exact approach to solving a question that will form part of some assessed
work.

3.2 What is collusion?

Collusion is a type of plagiarism and so represents a form of unacceptable academic practice that should always be avoided.

Collusion refers to working too closely with one or more individuals to help solve and/or answer an assessed task or question,
producing a joint answer or solution (intentionally or not) to gain an unfair advantage over other students.

Collusion may involve:

- working with one or more individuals on the precise method or approach needed to answer a task or question (either telling
others or asking others for this information);

- discussing how to solve an assessed task or question in such a way that the final answer is very obvious;

- working through an assessed task or question and writing the answers together so that they are very similar in content, structure
and style;

- sharing the answer to an assessed task or question (either making this available to others or receiving/taking it from others)
to see what needs to be included in the final answer or approach to a task.

In each of these examples, the final work presented for assessment is no longer that of the individual because it either includes
undisclosed contributions from other individuals or has enabled others to enhance their answer in an unfair manner. As such,
it now represents the understanding and application of the group and not the individual.

Anyone who takes part in these or similar examples to gain an advantage in marks and in which their work becomes blurred with
that of others has colluded. As such, they are at risk of losing marks or being awarded a zero grade for their assignment,
because they have submitted plagiarised work as their own.

3.3 Using extracts from spoken and online discussions

In oral discussions, the words are spoken out loud and soon forgotten. Most people listen to what different members of the
group will have to say in an oral discussion and generally recall the overall gist of the argument rather than noting down
every specific word. This enables them to present their own interpretation of the discussion and the different arguments presented
by different contributors, rather than a word-for-word transcript of everything that was said.

In contrast, in an online discussion (e.g. within a forum, a series of emails, or an instant messaging service such as Skype
or MSN), every word presented is a part of the permanent written record, which is easy to review over and over again. It is
also easy to cut and paste into your document, so very easy to plagiarise!

It is important to write your own notes about what you have gleaned from an online discussion, rather than simply cutting
and pasting. Then, when you come to write your assignment it will be based on your own interpretation of the discussion and
you will be able to demonstrate your understanding of the subject.

3.4 Collaborative group answers

Submitting a collaborative group answer is only acceptable if it is explicitly asked for as part of the assessed task or question.

In such cases, a group answer often forms part of the assessment and is linked to additional questions or tasks where each
individual has to describe their contribution to the group task and/or present their own thoughts and ideas on the process
or topic of discussion.

Even when you are required to submit a collective group answer, it is important to clearly indicate where the group’s work
starts and finishes, and what your individual thoughts, ideas and answers are.

If you are required to complete an assessed activity or question on your own but have found discussions with one or more individuals
helpful in understanding how to complete this task (without obtaining the final or near-final answer), it may be acceptable
to cite the group contributions or those from another individual as part of your final answer. In such cases, always check
with your tutor first.

For example:

‘As part of a study group discussion (4 June 2008), the group collectively agreed that …’

In this type of scenario, as well as in the citation in your answer, you must include a reference at the end of your work.
This should include a distinguishing name for the group, a note that this was a ‘personal communication’ (e.g. not written
down anywhere), what the discussion was on and the date.

For example:

S250 Northwest study group (2008) Discussions on the human genome, 4 June 2008 (pers. comm.).

‘During an online discussion, Mark Jones (S250 general forum, 4 June 2008) described …’

For this type of online citation you should give the author’s name, the forum name and the date of the message (where the
month is stated as a word, not a number). If you refer to more than one message posted by the same author on the same day,
use ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, etc. after the year to distinguish between each posting. You then need to include a full reference at the
end of your work, including the author’s name, the title of the message, the name of the forum and the full date.

For example:

Jones, M. (2008) ‘Understanding genomics – does this help?’, S250 general forum, 4 June 2008.

Click on the media player below to listen to a student who has been plagiarised.

Audio content is not available in this format.

A student who has been plagiarised

View transcript - A student who has been plagiarised

3.5 Quiz

You can check your understanding about this topic by answering some questions about academic integrity. Use the links below
to access a quiz with questions appropriate for your level of study.

Introductory level: collaboration versus collusion quiz

Advanced level: collaboration versus collusion quiz

4 Common knowledge

‘Common knowledge’ refers to any piece of information that:

- is widely known within a specific discipline;

- may frequently be found in different academic sources, unreferenced;

- may be attributed to a number of different authors.

This brief definition should help you realise that common knowledge can be subject-specific: concepts and information that
are widely known in environmental science, for example, may not be widely known in art history, and vice versa.

Common knowledge also depends on the level of study. If you are new to a subject area, you will have less knowledge and understanding
about the topic than if you are an expert. The more experience you develop, the more your subject-specific language will develop
– but, at the same time, you will also use more specific evidence from other people’s work to support your own work and ideas.

It should be evident that, in general, there is no need to provide a reference for a piece of factual information that is
deemed to be common knowledge. However, deciding whether something is ‘common knowledge’ is a matter of academic judgement!

For example, the dates of the Second World War, the chemical symbol for water, pi to two decimal places or the current prime
minister of the UK are all common knowledge in the UK. This is because:

- most people know these things;

- they are easy to verify by referring to a number of different, easily accessible sources (e.g. a dictionary, encyclopedia,
asking friends, etc.).

Anything that has to be looked up in a specialist reference book or is attributable to a specific author would not count as
common knowledge. You need to consider who you are writing for when you are deciding whether something is ‘common knowledge’
or not. If you are not sure whether something is or is not common knowledge, the best approach is to include a reference to
the source where you found the information.

4.1 General examples

Are the following general examples common knowledge?

Example 1

The capital of France is Paris.

View answer - Example 1

Example 2

When walking along the road, you should keep to the pavement.

View answer - Example 2

Example 3

The population of England and Wales in 1700 was about 5.5 million.

View answer - Example 3

4.2 Subject-specific examples

Here are some subject-specific examples of common knowledge:

- 4.2.1 Arts

- 4.2.2 Health and Social Care

- 4.2.3 Maths, Computing and Technology

- 4.2.4 Science

- 4.2.5 Social Sciences

Feel free to focus only the subject areas you are interested in studying, or are studying.

4.2.1 Arts

You have been advised that there is no need to provide a reference for a piece of factual information that is deemed to be common knowledge. However, deciding whether something is ‘common
knowledge’ is not always straightforward. Indeed, it can touch on one of the most exciting aspects of academic study.

As an Arts student you will develop your ability to make judgements about statements that claim to be factual. If a piece
of information like a date or a place is not in dispute you don’t need to provide a reference. But if scholars are arguing
about such matters and discovering further information, or if popular opinion (common knowledge) is contrary to the latest
research, you do need to provide a reference to show that you are aware of complexity as well as to avoid plagiarism.

Here are two examples. Would you describe this information as common knowledge?

Example 4

Henry VIII of England ruled from 1509–1547: Yes/No

View answer - Example 4

Example 5

Modern scholarship places the dates of Jesus of Nazareth at 4BCE–29CE: Yes/No

View answer - Example 5

Sometimes you may think that a particular idea is common knowledge but find, when you start to study Arts subjects more deeply,
that what you had taken for granted is not as obvious as you had thought. When this happens you need to provide a reference.

Click on the media player below to listen to historian Professor Clive Emsley explaining what is regarded as ‘common
knowledge’ within Arts.

Audio content is not available in this format.

Professor Clive Emsley

View transcript - Professor Clive Emsley

4.2.2 Health and Social Care

If you’re writing your assessment, in whatever form, you are expected to make clear where the information you have used came
from. This is usually done through a reference: that is, citing the place where you found that information. Otherwise, the reader can reasonably be expected to believe
that you generated the information or evidence yourself. This is why universities put so much emphasis on accurate referencing
and warn you about the dangers of plagiarism.

The only exception to this rule is if you are saying something so well known that people could reasonably be expected to know
it and to know straight away that you have not discovered it yourself. Here are some examples:

- The National Health Service was established in 1948.

- Obesity is a medical term describing a condition in which a person’s body mass index (BMI) exceeds the recommended level for
someone of their height and weight.

- Social workers work with a range of clients.

- Disability is used as a general term to describe a physical or sensory impairment or a learning disability.

This is what is meant by common knowledge. Common knowledge in Health and Social Care is something that is so well known that it’s obvious to you and your readers.

Once you begin to dig more deeply into issues, however, you quickly get beyond common knowledge. Take the example of disability.
Disability is not a neutral term and there are fierce debates about how far disability is socially constructed or a matter
for the individual. For example, someone with a physical condition – such as one requiring them to use a wheelchair – could
be seen as disabled either by their condition or by a society that caters mainly for its able-bodied citizens. Someone with
an invisible condition like diabetes may or may not see themselves as disabled. Now, the moment you start entering into a
debate such as this you must use references to make clear that you are not the originator of these ideas.

Consider obesity as well. There is currently a lot of concern about obesity and about the growing numbers of children and
adults in the UK, the rest of Europe and the USA who are very overweight and diagnosed as obese in medical terms through use
of the body mass index. However, there are once again debates about what all this really means. Questions have been raised
about the relevance of the BMI as a measure of obesity as it does not distinguish between fat and muscle; so, for example,
many athletes have a high BMI. Questions have also been raised about whether using the term ‘obesity’ stigmatises people who
are overweight; i.e. labels them as blameworthy and turns them into patients. Is obesity really a disease? Or is it one of
a number of risk factors that may make people more susceptible to conditions such as diabetes or coronary heart disease? Are
we focusing too much on reducing weight in individuals and making them feel to blame, rather than tackling environmental causes
of obesity, such as over-reliance on motorised transport, manufacture of highly processed foods and lack of safe places to
play? As you can see, once you start to repeat such statements or questions you need to use references to acknowledge the
writers and researchers who generated these ideas.

So, when you are investigating those differing perspectives you need to start referencing. The more you investigate an issue,
the more likely it is that you will realise that what you thought was common knowledge is beginning to be questionable.

This brings you into the territory of academic judgement, when you go beyond common knowledge and recognise that not everybody will agree with what you are saying, or that what you
are saying is drawn from the judgement and research of other people. As we have noted already, when you use the judgements
or the conclusions of other people you have to start referencing otherwise you get into the realm of plagiarism. You need
to say who the individual is, not just: ‘some researchers say this’, or ‘some psychologists say that’. You need to identify
who these writers are. If you found their ideas in a textbook or in the course materials you need to reference those works
and make clear that you found the writers’ ideas in there. Otherwise things are left unclear. Tutors who are marking your
work don’t know who you are talking about or may not be sure that you really know where the information came from. So when
you get beyond common knowledge you must reference.

Listed below are some statements. Are they common knowledge?

Statement 1

Obesity was first classified as a disease in 1985: Yes/No

View answer - Statement 1

Statement 2

Body Mass Index (BMI) is an accepted measure for calculating obesity: Yes/No

View answer - Statement 2

Statement 3

Sir Douglas Black’s Report on Inequalities in Health was published in 1980 but very few copies were printed: Yes/No

View answer - Statement 3

Statement 4

Sir Douglas Black’s Report on Inequalities in Health (1980) was one of the most significant reviews of health in the twentieth century: Yes/No

View answer - Statement 4

Statement 5

Sir Douglas Black’s Report on Inequalities in Health (1980) was the most important review of health inequalities in the twentieth century: Yes/No

View answer - Statement 5

4.2.3 Maths, Computing and Technology

In a pure mathematics examination question a first-year student is asked to state and prove Pythagoras’s Theorem.

Level 1

The student should have previously memorised the theorem and its proof and could repeat this verbatim as the answer to the
question without needing to reference Pythagoras’s original statement or the course text’s version of the statement. The theorem
is essentially considered to be ‘common knowledge’ at this level, in this context and within this subject.

In a mathematical physics examination question a third-year student is asked to state and prove Pythagoras’s Theorem in 2D space and then to extend it: firstly, to 3D space; secondly,
to n-dimensional space and, finally, to non-Euclidean geometries.

Level 3

In this case, the student should state the theorem and proof verbatim but should reference the source of the particular version
of the theorem and should reference the work of other researchers who have extended the original theorem.

However, a discussion of Euclidean and non-Euclidean spaces should also be included with descriptions and explanations presented
in the student’s own words. Here, the theorem forms part of a wider context within a more difficult subject area and at a
more advanced level, and so only certain aspects of its statement and use would be considered to be common knowledge.

In a mathematical philosophy examination question a postgraduate student is asked to analyse and discuss various forms of
Pythagoras’s Theorem and the latter’s influence on our general concept of physical space.

Postgraduate

Here the student should state and reference the sources of several different forms of the theorem, and, additionally, should
provide a detailed critical analysis with extensive references to a wide range of sources that discuss the topic.

In this very broad context, within a conceptually sophisticated subject at a very advanced level, there is likely to be very
little common knowledge involved. Full referencing should accompany the discussion and analysis, including references to ostensibly
‘obvious facts’, however ‘simple’ these might appear to be at first sight.

4.2.3.1 Good academic practices in mathematics

How to find help with your studies

We hope that our teaching materials will make perfect sense the first time round, but the nature of mathematics is that concepts
are quite hard, so most of what follows is about what to do when you find it hard.

Firstly, you should realise that almost everyone struggles with mathematics at some point. If mathematical problems could
all be solved without a struggle the subject would not have the fascination and reward that it does.

Secondly, identify the nature of your problem. Is it:

- a specific piece of course text where you cannot see where the next line comes from;

- a general feeling of not understanding;

- an assignment question that you don’t know how to begin?

Struggling with mathematics is part of the learning process. Doing a course in mathematics is not just about producing assignment
answers or even passing the exam or end-of-course assessment. It is about engaging and wrestling with the ideas and techniques
in the course. You are likely to make mistakes, misunderstand some things and quite possibly feel stupid. Of course, you need
to correct your mistakes and sort out your misunderstandings, but do not feel too stupid! Making mistakes can be a useful
part of learning. You may find it helpful to refer to the book Success with Mathematics by Heather Cooke.

Do you have a general feeling of not understanding?

This is harder to cope with but still very common in mathematics.

If this happens early in the course, ask yourself whether you have taken a course before you are ready for it. Your tutor
should be able to help you determine this.

Have you rushed through some material without giving it time to sink in? A good way of dealing with this is to work though
some relevant problems or exercises. Write out your solutions properly – looking at the provided solution for guidance as
needed. Even if this means that you are essentially copying the provided solution, it will help, particularly if you check
the results and definitions used.

Try to attend tutorials. You can also make use of course forums if they are available – just knowing that others are feeling
the same way can help.

If you are able to do most of the exercises but still feel you are struggling there is no real need to worry. It is likely
that, as you progress through the course, ideas and techniques that seemed unfamiliar and hard at first will become clearer
and fit into place. Mathematics, particularly more advanced mathematics, requires something that is often called ‘absorption
time’.

Is it an assignment question that you don’t know how to begin?

Assignment questions are nearly always based closely on the course text. Indeed, most questions will clearly state which part
of the course is being covered in their preamble. Many questions closely follow an exercise or example in the text, so a first
step is to look for such an exercise or example and try to understand that. If you can find such an exercise or example you
can discuss this with other students or with your tutor. If you cannot identify such an exercise or example you can try:

- contacting your tutor;

- posting a message on a course-based forum ;

- contacting a faculty member.

If you do discuss approaches to assignment questions with fellow students – or indeed anyone – you can still submit a solution.
You should write it out on your own, using the course text as the basis for your answer. In general you must complete an assignment
yourself and not submit a joint effort.

External resources

Libraries have traditionally been the place to go for extra material. You should be aware that titles of mathematics books
can be particularly misleading – even a book entitled Elements of Number Theory may be a graduate text. You should also be aware that, although most mathematical notation and definitions are international,
it is possible that the book you have found is using some notation differently from the course text. If you happen upon an
exercise or example that is essentially the same as an assignment question you should behave as suggested above. Namely, if
you do read it, do not copy the solution, but go away and write it out for yourself, using the course text as the basis for
your answer.

Nowadays the internet provides an extremely rich source of mathematical material and you can browse this in much the same
way as a library book. Do be alert to the origin of the material as it may not have been through the refereeing and editing
process of a text. You should treat any worked examples and exercises that closely match an assignment question in the way
described above.

In general, remember that you need to practise constructing your own answers to prepare you for the exam or for future courses.

Frequently asked questions

Question 1

Why do we need ‘Frequently Asked Questions’ for mathematics, statistics and mathematically-based sciences and technologies?

View answer - Question 1

Question 2

What is plagiarism in mathematics, statistics and mathematically-based sciences and technologies?

View answer - Question 2

Question 3

Am I allowed to work on an assignment with other students?

View answer - Question 3

Question 4

Am I allowed to copy from the course material when an assignment question is much the same as an exercise?

View answer - Question 4

Question 5

How do I refer to definitions, theorems and formal mathematical statements?

View answer - Question 5

Question 6

Can I post an assignment question on an ‘ask a question’ website, even if I don’t copy the answer but just use it to help
me?

View answer - Question 6

Question 7

I use books and the internet to supplement my studies. Is it acceptable to copy an answer to an assignment question from a
source such as a book or the internet if I give a reference?

View answer - Question 7

Question 8

Can I use a calculator or computer to help with calculations?

View answer - Question 8

Question 9

Can I use a calculator or computer to sketch graphs?

View answer - Question 9

4.2.4 Science

Although the following examples have been subdivided into broad disciplines of study, you may find it useful to work through
all of them, to develop your awareness of what type of information can be defined as common knowledge within science, and
what typically needs to be accompanied by a reference.

As in all cases, if you are uncertain whether something within your specific subject area and at your current level of study
represents common knowledge or should be referenced, the best option is to include a reference just in case. As you progress
with your studies within a particular course, subject area and levels of study, your familiarity of what does and does not
represent common knowledge will develop.

A useful basic rule to refer back to is that if the information you want to use can be linked back to a specific person, single
group of researchers or specific reference source, and that information is not commonly quoted in textbooks and other literature
associated with your study area, then it probably is not common knowledge and should be referenced.

Click on the media player below to listen to Stephen Serjeant, Senior Lecturer in Science, explaining what is regarded
as ‘common knowledge’ within Science.

Audio content is not available in this format.

Stephen Serjeant, Senior Lecturer in Science

View transcript - Stephen Serjeant, Senior Lecturer in Science

4.2.4.1 Health Sciences

Example 1

There are two types of diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is caused by the body not producing any insulin, whereas Type 2 diabetes
is caused by the body not producing enough insulin to ensure blood sugar levels are controlled effectively.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 1

Example 2

Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of this condition and is commonly linked to obesity. In 2007, 2.5 million people had
been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes across the UK (equal to 3.66% of the population), with this estimated to increase 160%
to ~4% by 2025.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 2

4.2.4.2 Molecular Science

Example 1

Analytical tests on samples of Greco-Roman cosmetic powders have revealed that the pink coloration can primarily be attributed
to various compounds originally extracted from madder plants.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 1

Example 2

Lewis structures are used to represent the bonding relationships between atoms within any covalently bonded molecule, and
indicate how lone pairs of electrons are shared in accordance with the octet rule.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 2

4.2.4.3 Geosciences (Earth and Environmental Science)

Example 1

The island of Réunion located in the southwest Indian Ocean is an intra-oceanic plate shield volcano consisting of two coalesced
volcanoes – Piton des Neiges (dormant) and Piton de la Fournaise (still active). The island is characterised by ultramafic
to mafic alkaline eruptive sequences, typical of ‘hot spot’ volcanic sequences.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 1

Example 2

Darcy’s law is a measure of the rate of flow of a fluid through a porous substance. It states that the flow velocity ( measured in m s–1) through a porous substrate is proportional to the difference in height in metres (Δh) divided by the distance (Δl) down
a slope between two points, multiplied by the hydraulic conductivity of the soil (K), which is a constant, i.e.

As the flow velocity () is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (Δh/Δl), an increase in the gradient will result in a predictable and fixed rate
increase in the flow velocity.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 2

4.2.4.4 Physical Science

Example 1

Newton’s third law of motion states that when an object exerts a force on another object, the second object will exert a force
of the same magnitude in the opposite direction on the first object. This is commonly simplified as: for every action there
is an equal and opposite reaction.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 1

Example 2

The radio galaxy Cygnus A has been found to contain a central dust lane and clear ‘opening cone morphology’, both of which
have been attributed to star formation commencing <1 Ga ago, with this timing determined from the colours emitted by these
regions.

Is this common knowledge or does it need to be referenced?

View answer - Example 2

4.2.5 Social Sciences

The notion of ‘common knowledge’ draws us into difficult territory, because it involves a judgement on what is, and what is
not, widely known and acknowledged. Some bits of information are considered sufficiently clear and well established to be
viewed as common knowledge, and therefore do not require a reference. You will have already noted a few examples of widely
known facts and other information in earlier pages linked to this website. Below are two more examples where it is difficult
to disagree with what is being said:

- Global development has been uneven in its economic impact on different parts of the world.

- Britain has undergone some major economic and social changes since the Second World War.

In both cases the evidence is almost overwhelming in supporting these general statements. Indeed it is partly because the
statements are so general that they are difficult to debate. It is reasonable to assume that both are sufficiently well known
that they can be regarded as common knowledge and do not require referencing.

In your coursework in the Social Sciences and elsewhere you will often want to use statements, ideas and information that
are less widely known and acknowledged. For example, you might want to make use of a particular line of argument about the
role of big businesses in present day globalisation, and draw supporting evidence from a particular map, table or graph. Perhaps
you want to make use of information from non-course sources to support or challenge an idea in a course about the impact of
television on British society. In such cases you will need to make clear to your tutor where the information comes from, by
acknowledging your source(s). If you are in any doubt about whether or not to reference, you should err on the side of caution.

A key principle for those working in the Social Sciences is that knowledge is socially constructed. What we mean by this is
that knowledge is created, and argued about, by us as human beings. Ideas, and their supporting evidence, are constantly being
analysed and debated, in an attempt to develop a clearer understanding. Work in the Social Sciences does not stand still,
and relatively few ideas assume the status of ‘common knowledge’.

Even so, you will find that the various fields of study (disciplines) – in the case of Open University Social Sciences this
comprises Economics, Geography, Politics, Psychology, Social Policy and Sociology – have each accumulated a vocabulary of
reasonably well-established ideas. Some of these ideas may be considered as sufficiently accepted by academics working in
that field not to require referencing, but they won’t necessarily be well established to you as a student.

For example, ideas like ‘the geographical imagination’, ‘uneven development’ or ‘international division of labour’ are well
established within Geography, but, if you used these ideas as a student, you would need to show first that you understood
what they meant. That would involve you tracking down (and referencing) the course sources where these ideas were introduced
and explained. It should be clear then that what might be viewed as ‘common knowledge’ will not only vary between fields of
study, it could also depend on your level of subject area experience.

4.3 Quiz

You can check your understanding about this topic by answering some questions about academic integrity. Use the links below
to access a quiz with questions appropriate for your level of study.

Introductory level: common knowledge quiz

Advanced level: common knowledge quiz

5 Referencing

Before we explain a bit more about referencing here are some definitions to get you started.

A citation is the ‘indicator’ you put in the text to alert the reader to the fact you are talking about somebody else’s work or using
somebody else’s words. The ‘indicator’ often takes the form of a number, either in brackets or as a superscript, or it can
state the surname of the author with the year of publication, e.g. (Brown, 2009).

A reference is a detailed description of the source you have cited. References are often at the bottom of a page or collected together
at the end of an article as a reference list.

A bibliography is a list of the materials, such as books and journal articles, that you have used. In some disciplines it may include only
the items you have used as general reading to provide background information but not necessarily cited because individual
ideas or text are not reproduced. In other disciplines it may include both the information you have used for background reading
and your reference list.

5.1 Why should you cite references?

When producing an assignment, any other assessed piece of work or something that is going to be viewed and/or used by others,
it is important to include complete and accurate references because:

- your references show you have read around the subject;

- your academic argument will be stronger if it’s supported by evidence from other people’s research;

- others will be able to find and use the same sources that informed your work, which in turn allows them to check the validity
and authenticity of your work, as well as develop and enhance their own understanding of the subject.

If you use other people’s work to construct your answers and do not include appropriate references, then you will be passing
off other people’s work as your own, and so be guilty of plagiarism.

As you progress through your academic career, it is important to develop your study skills and understand when, where and
what you need to reference. It is equally important to develop an understanding of what you don't need to reference (e.g. your own thoughts and ideas, and anything that constitutes common knowledge).

The various styles in which you should present references are briefly described below, but which system you use and the exact
form of the reference depends upon the advice given by your university or college. You should check your course material for
specific details about which form of referencing to use.

5.2 Alphabetical referencing

One suggested convention for citing references is alphabetical; e.g. the Harvard referencing style. The name of the author
appears in brackets in the text, together with the year of publication; for example (Smith, 1986). Where there are only two
authors, both names should be given in the text; if there are more than two authors only the first name should appear followed
by ‘et al.’(short for ‘et alia’, meaning ‘and others’).

Books should be referenced as follows:

Name(s) of author(s), initials of author(s), year of publication (in brackets), book title (in italic), edition number (if
appropriate), serial editor (if appropriate), publisher, place of publication, chapter number (if appropriate), page number.

References to articles in journals should be written as follows:

Name(s) of author(s), initials of author(s), year of publication (in brackets), title of the article (in quotation marks),
abbreviated journal name (in italic), volume and part number (in bold), page number of the first page in the article.

When two or more references are cited to a work by one author or a group of authors for the same year, they should be identified
by including ‘a’, ‘b’, etc. after the date; for example (Smith, 1986a). If several references to different pages of the same
article occur, the appropriate page number may be given; for example (Smith, 1986, p. 39).

The reference list in this convention should be placed at the end of your assignment under the heading ‘References’. It should
consist of an alphabetical listing by authors’ names and be in date order for each author or group of identical authors (see
the examples below). Notice that, in order to allow listing by surname, initials appear after the author’s surname. Note also that the publication year (in brackets) immediately follows the author name(s).

References

Amincharge, I., Thoughtofit, I., Didthework, I. and Cobley, U.T. (2002) ‘Predicting the completely obvious’, Somethingacology, 135:1, pp. 151–3.

Author, A.N. (2009) ‘My Fascinating Research’ in Booker, J. (ed.) Interesting Topics, Publisher, London, ch. 2, pp. 21–30.

Booker, J. (ed.) (2009) Interesting Topics, Publisher, London.

Einstein, A. and Newton, I. (1993) ‘Complex equations that nobody else understands’, Proc. Perplexed Soc., 18:2, pp. 247–51.

Scientist, I.B. (1991) ‘Some research that was funded’, J. Fairyland Sci., 251, pp. 1586–91.

Smith, T. (1986a) ‘My research this year’, J. Fairyland Sci., 251:4, pp. 1570–85.

Smith, T. (1986b) My Memoirs, Publisher, London.

Remember to check your course material for guidance specific to your course.

5.3 Numerical referencing

Another convention for citing references in your main text is to use either numbers in square brackets or superscripts, where
the numbering starts at the beginning of the report and increases sequentially throughout. These would appear as reference
[1] or reference^1. Each number must refer uniquely to a given source, detailed in a list collected together at the end of the review, under
the heading ‘References’.

The following example shows a book, a journal article and a website collected together in the same numerical reference list.

References

1. A.N. Importantscientist, My Favourite Topic, 2002, Rich and Richer, USA, ch. 11, p. 349.

2. The Society of Biophysicochemical Geologists. Work I couldn’t get published until now [online]. Available from: http://www.BPCGS.ac.uk/publications/lessreliable.html (Accessed 1 April 2009).

3. A. Scientist and A.N. Otherscientist, ‘Really interesting science: honestly’, J. Irrep. Res., 2002, 15, p. 374.

5.4 Quoting

Quoting other people’s words in your writing is often very useful as it can provide authority to a particular argument you
are developing and it can also show that you have read widely around the subject. If you are using someone else’s words you
need to make it clear to the reader where your words stop and start again and where the words you are quoting come from. Usually
this is achieved by putting the words you are quoting in inverted commas and then giving a citation to a particular reference.

For example, if you are quoting something of less than one sentence, you would normally include it within your text:

Taylor (2009) argues that ‘Plagiarism is an academic crime that should elicit an academic penalty’.

or

It has been suggested that ‘Plagiarism is an academic crime that should elicit an academic penalty’ (Taylor, 2009).

If the quotation is more than one sentence it is usually displayed as a separate paragraph that is indented to show the text
is a quotation. For example:

‘Plagiarism is the act of claiming to be the author of material that someone else actually wrote. Students have plagiarised book reports,
term papers, essays, projects, and graduate-degree theses. Teachers—including college professors—have plagiarised journal
articles, course materials, and textbooks. Researchers have plagiarised reports, articles, and book chapters. Although academic
plagiarism is not new, what is new since the latter years of the 20th century is the ease with which writings on virtually any topic
can be misappropriated with little risk of detection. The principal instrument responsible for the recent rapid rise in academic
plagiarism has been the Internet, which John Barrie, a developer of software for detecting Web plagiarism, called “a 1.5 billion-page searchable, cut-and-pasteable encyclopedia.”’ [our bold emphasis]

(Thomas, 2002)

In some examples you may come across, the quotation marks are not used because the fact that the paragraph is indented shows
that the text is a quotation. To be safe, it is best to include the quotation marks. If you are unsure, check your course
material. The quotation is always associated with a citation, in this case after the quote, but in other cases it could be
introduced by the citation as in:

Thomas (2002) describes plagiarism as:

‘Plagiarism is the act of claiming to be the author of material that someone else actually wrote. Students have plagiarized book reports,
term papers, essays, projects, and graduate-degree theses. Teachers—including college professors—have plagiarised journal
articles, course materials, and textbooks. Researchers have plagiarised reports, articles, and book chapters. Although academic
plagiarism is not new, what is new since the latter years of the 20th century is the ease with which writings on virtually any topic
can be misappropriated with little risk of detection. The principal instrument responsible for the recent rapid rise in academic
plagiarism has been the Internet, which John Barrie, a developer of software for detecting Web plagiarism, called “a 1.5 billion-page searchable, cut-and-pasteable encyclopedia.”’ [our bold emphasis]

Sometimes you may want to omit some text from the quote, in which case you would replace any missing text with three dots
enclosed by square brackets […], as in:

Thomas (2002) describes plagiarism as:

‘Plagiarism is the act of claiming to be the author of material that someone else actually wrote. Students have plagiarised book reports
[…]. Teachers—including college professors—have plagiarised journal articles […]. Researchers have plagiarised reports […].
The principal instrument responsible for the recent rapid rise in academic plagiarism has been the Internet, which John Barrie, a developer of software for detecting Web plagiarism, called “a 1.5 billion-page searchable, cut-and-pasteable encyclopedia.”’ [our bold emphasis]

Anything quoted in text must be included in a reference list:

Thomas, R.M. (2002) New Frontiers in Cheating, Encyclopaedia Brittanica Online. Available from http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9389369 (Accessed 24 April 2009).

5.5 Quiz

You can check your understanding about this topic by answering some questions about academic integrity. Use the links below
to access a quiz with questions appropriate for your level of study.

Introductory level: referencing quiz

Advanced level: referencing quiz

6 Why do students plagiarise?

Some students end up plagiarising for a wide variety of reasons – sometimes intentionally, but more often unintentionally.
Irrespective of whether they meant to plagiarise or not, it is still a form of inappropriate academic practice and will therefore
incur some level of penalty.

Early in your student career it is worth investing time in:

- developing good note-taking skills;

- practising writing in your own words;

- learning how to reference properly;

- developing time management skills;

- improving your academic literacy skills;

- working effectively with others;

- acknowledging collaborative contributions.

Once you have done this it’s unlikely you will plagiarise, intentionally or unintentionally.

Some of the more common reasons and ‘traps’ that cause students to plagiarise include:

- poor study skills; e.g. not having the relevant skills and knowledge to study effectively at this level;

- not understanding what is required by the assignment; e.g. misinterpreting the task or not recognising what they have to do
to complete it; poor time management skills, e.g. not leaving enough time to complete assignments, resulting in copying material
from other sources to get work in on time;

- lacking in confidence in their language skills; e.g. feeling that they do not have the skills to allow them to express the
ideas in a form that is as good as the source, resulting in their cutting and pasting words and sections from other sources
into their assignment;

- poor note-taking skills; e.g. mixing up their own thoughts and ideas with those taken from others, or cutting and pasting
information from other sources and forgetting where these came from but using them almost word-for-word in their own work
without acknowledging the original source.

Many students who plagiarise as a result of these and other reasons may not realise what they have done or the severity of
their actions until either their tutor points it out to them or they lose marks as a result of inappropriate academic practices.

Less commonly, some students set out to deliberately deceive their tutor (and themselves) by obtaining work from other people
or sources, and knowingly submit this as their own work. This is a clear case of cheating and constitutes fraud.

6.1 Common problems

If you feel you don’t have the language skills to be able to express your ideas clearly and therefore rely on using other
people’s words, you are plagiarising these materials. When your plagiarism has been discovered, it will be penalised.

It is, therefore, important to develop your language skills. Although this will slow down your present study, it is a good
investment for the future – you only need to do this once in your academic career and so it’s worth doing early on.

If you feel you don’t have the time to read the course materials or write the assignment yourself and rely on reproducing
other people’s words, you are plagiarising these materials.

You may have an exemplary record of study and only need to plagiarise at one specific difficult time, but nevertheless this
is still inexcusable – it’s cheating. At these difficult periods it is much better to think about how you can manage your
time better.

Some students will take notes from a text, or notes of a tutorial or video and end up copying the words that were written
or said. When these are reproduced in an assignment they become plagiarism.

6.2 Quiz

You can check your understanding about this topic by answering some questions about academic integrity. Use the links below
to access a quiz with questions appropriate for your level of study.

Introductory level: why do students plagiarise? quiz

Advanced level: why do students plagiarise? quiz

7 Test your understanding of good academic practices

This is your opportunity to retake the quiz you completed at the beginning of this course. Use it to assess how much you’ve
learned and how much your understanding of academic integrity has improved.

Introductory level: good academic practices quiz

Advanced level: good academic practices quiz

Conclusion

This free course provided an introduction to studying Educational Practice. It took you through a series of exercises designed
to develop your approach to study and learning at a distance and helped to improve your confidence as an independent learner.

Keep on learning

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Acknowledgements

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Example 1

Answer

Even if you didn’t know the capital of France, you would probably have no difficulty in finding this information. This can,
therefore, be regarded as common knowledge.

Back

Example 2

Answer

This is common knowledge in the UK, and also Rule 1 for pedestrians in the Highway Code. So you would reference it
if you wanted to prove to somebody that this was in the Highway Code; otherwise, you would not.

Back

Example 3

Answer

Think about how difficult it would be to find this information. Even though this figure might not be contested, it is not
the kind of thing that people commonly know and it would be tricky to look up. It is, therefore, not common knowledge and
would need a reference.

Back

Example 4

Answer

Yes

Even if you didn’t know the dates of Henry VIII you would probably have no difficulty in finding them. This can, therefore,
be regarded as common knowledge.

No

There is a difference between what you know or don’t know and what can be regarded as common knowledge. You may have to look
up the dates of Henry VIII but there is no dissent about his dates and it is very easy to find them.

Back

Example 5

Answer

Yes

Think about how most people would answer the question, ‘In which year was Jesus born?’ Many would know that our calendar system
is based on CE ‘the common era’, BCE ‘before the common era’. Far fewer people would know that modern scholars disagree with
the traditional dating and some would probably resist or question this development.

No

This information may be common knowledge among scholars but it is not common knowledge among non-specialists and, therefore,
needs a reference.

Back

Statement 1

Answer

Yes

It is a fact that is in the public domain and does not need a reference to support it. There are debates about whether the
medical profession was right to classify obesity as a disease but no debates about the fact that it was done.

No

There aren’t any arguments for using a reference. This is a clear cut case of common knowledge.

Back

Statement 2

Answer

Yes

You might argue that BMI is a medical measure that is widely used and accepted by doctors. However, there are fierce debates
about the measure itself so referencing is advised.

No

Use a reference. BMI may be widely used but it is the subject of ongoing debate. For example, critics claim that it does not
distinguish between fat and muscle and is therefore an inaccurate measure of obesity. Interpretations of the data vary considerably
in assessing what constitutes a ‘dangerous’ BMI.

Back

Statement 3

Answer

Yes

This is a fact that is not contested and has been known since the date of publication.

No

There aren’t any arguments for using a reference. This is a clear cut case of common knowledge.

Back

Statement 4

Answer

Yes

This is probably common knowledge. It is well known and accepted by anyone with an interest in studying health, though it
is unlikely to be known by the general public. Even if people disagree about the report itself they would agree that it had
a considerable impact. Besides, it is only saying ‘one of the most significant reviews’ so you don’t have to prove that it
is the most important.

No

It could be argued that the political right did not see the report as significant because it did not agree with any of the
report’s recommendations, even banishing the term ‘inequalities’ and replacing it with ‘variations’. However, doing that indicates
the power of the report and how significant it was in shaping policy in the twentieth century. This statement just about counts
as common knowledge but might be worth referencing.

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Statement 5

Answer

Yes

The Black Report found there were steep social class gradients in health in the UK, with the lowest socio-economic groups
having much worse life expectancy and health than the highest socio-economic groups. The majority of researchers would probably
agree with the statement because of the influence the report has had in shaping policy since its publication, firstly in trying
to dismiss Black’s findings and then in trying to reverse the social class gradients. But only the majority so a reference
is clearly needed.

No

Some researchers would vehemently disagree and claim that social class gradients in health are artefacts of the way social
class and health are measured. In any case, this is an area of debate and will probably become so again with the publication
of the Marmot Report (2010) on health inequalities. So the statement definitely doesn’t count as common knowledge and needs
a full reference.

Marmot, M., Allen, J., Goldblatt, P., Boyce, T., McNeish, D., Grady, M. and Geddes, I. (2010) Fair Society, Healthy Lives: The Marmot Review –A Strategic Review of Health Inequalities in England Post-2010, London, The Marmot Review, University College London; also available online at www.ucl.ac.uk/marmotreview (Accessed 21 May 2010).

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Question 1

Answer

Because there are some specific issues that are not appropriate for the generic document.

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Question 2

Answer

It is the same as in other academic areas: if you deliberately submit an assignment that contains work that is not your own,
without indicating this to the marker (by formally acknowledging your sources), you are committing ‘plagiarism’.

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Question 3

Answer

Yes. However, submissions must be written up individually, away from the group.

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Question 4

Answer

It is to be expected that the layout and your mathematical workings will be similar in format to those in the course material.
Indeed, these will provide a guide as to how much detail you should give in your solutions.

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Question 5

Answer

If the definition, theorem or formal mathematical statement is in the course material, simply say whereabouts in the course
material or handbook it occurs. If it has a name, such as ‘Lagrange’s Theorem’, use the name. For example ‘in Unit 4 Theorem
2.3 on p26’ or ‘HB p32 Lagrange’s Theorem’.

If a definition or theorem comes from elsewhere quote it exactly and give details of the book, article or web page (give date
accessed). Do not try to write definitions, theorems or formal mathematical statements in your own words. The wording is necessarily
very precise and usually is best left unaltered.

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Question 6

Answer

No. This may be a breach of copyright. If you are struggling with an assignment question then try:

- contacting your tutor;

- contacting a faculty member who provides additional tutorial help for your course and whose contact details are given in the
course information.

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Question 7

Answer

No. You may not be awarded any marks for an answer that is not your own. If you have read through such an answer, you should
write your own answer away from the source consulting only the course material.

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Question 8

Answer

You can use a calculator to do numerical calculations. Any calculation that cannot be done on a calculator should be done
by hand, unless the instructions for your course or the assignment question say that you can use a computer. This is part
of your learning, and there will be marks allocated for working. However, it is a good idea to use a computer to check your
answer, where possible.

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Question 9

Answer

You should not use a graphics calculator or mathematical software to sketch a graph, unless the instructions for your course
or the assignment question say you can. In some courses it is not even acceptable to use graphics software such as the drawing
facilities in Microsoft Word – you need to check the instructions for your course. However, it is a good idea to use a graphics
calculator or computer to check your answer where possible.

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Example 1

Answer

This is an example of common knowledge. It is something you may already know or could easily find stated in a wide range of
source materials and academic dictionaries, without being accompanied by a reference.

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Example 2

Answer

This statement starts off with a general statement about the link between obesity and Type 2 diabetes, which is common knowledge
and does not need to be referenced. In contrast, the second sentence contains some very specific information, the exact details
of which are unlikely to be widely known and need to be shown to have come from a reputable source. As such this sentence
should be accompanied by a reference.

In this case, this information was extracted from www.diabetes.org.uk/Documents/Reports/Silent_assassin_press_report.pdf (last accessed on 30 Oct 2008). The correct way to show this statement in an answer would therefore be:

- Type 2 diabetes is the most common form of this condition and is commonly linked to obesity. In 2007, 2.5 million people had
been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes across the UK (equal to 3.66% of the population), with this estimated to increase 160%
to ~4% by 2025 (Smallwood, 2008).

At the end of the piece of work, depending upon the style of referencing you were using, you would give the full reference
as:

- Smallwood, D. (2008) ‘Diabetes: beware the silent assassin’, London, Diabetes UK; also available online at www.diabetes.org.uk/Documents/Reports/Silent_assassin_press_report.pdf (Accessed 30 October 2008).

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Example 1

Answer

This statement relates to a specialised subject and area of study (not everyone is involved in analysing the chemical composition
of archaeological cosmetics) and is unlikely to be widely known, even within the chemistry community. In addition, there is
the implication that this information has been obtained from a specific source (e.g. the specific study on these samples),
and as such, it should be accompanied by a reference.

The correct way to show this statement in an answer would therefore be:

- Analytical tests on samples of Greco-Roman cosmetic powders have revealed that the pink coloration can primarily be attributed
to various compounds originally extracted from madder plants(1).

With the full reference listed at the end of the work, e.g.

- (1)Van Elslande, E., Guérineau, V., Thirioux, V., Richard, G., Richardin, P., Laprévote, O., Hussler, G. and Walter, P. (2008)‘Analysis
of ancient Greco-Roman cosmetic materials using laser desorption ionization and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry’,Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry,vol. 390, no. 7, pp. 1873–79.

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Example 2

Answer

This statement contains a number of scientific terms that are likely to be unfamiliar to anyone who has not studied chemistry.
In contrast, this method of depicting molecular structures is commonly used at all levels within chemistry, would be found
unreferenced in any academic textbook or source material, and so represents common knowledge within this discipline. As such
it does not need to be referenced.

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Example 1

Answer

The information cited in this statement could be obtained from a number of different sources, with the second sentence linking
commonly known information (within the discipline of Earth Sciences) about hot spot volcanoes to this specific example of
the island of Réunion. As such, this statement can be viewed as common knowledge and does not require a reference.

If the statement went on to describe the range of rock types found across the island (e.g. picrites and oceanites, overlain
by more evolved hawaiites, mugearites and benmoreites, which in turn are overlain by more evolved trachytes), then this level
of detail should be backed up by an appropriate reference (e.g. Upton, B.G.J. and Wadsworth, W.J. (1972) ‘Aspects of magmatic
evolution of Reunion Island’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, 271, pp. 105–130).

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Example 2

Answer

Although the topic of this statement is relatively complex, for any student studying Level 2 (or higher) Environmental Science,
Darcy’s law and its usage would represent common knowledge, and could be found in any number of relevant academic textbooks
or reference sources. As such, stating this law or what it is commonly used for would not require a reference within an Environmental
Science answer.

If, however, you cited a specific example of the use of Darcy’s law using data that you did not collect yourself, then this
should be accompanied by a reference to indicate the source of this specific information.

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Example 1

Answer

Newton’s laws of motions are commonly known and used throughout science at all levels of studies, and can be found described
in a very large range of academic reference sources and textbooks. As such there is no need to include a reference for this
type of widely known and widely used information.

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Example 2

Answer

This statement is based on specific research work carried out by a group ofManchester astronomers, published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. Although the statement has been rewritten from the original, and summarises some of the key outcomes of this work, acknowledgement
needs to be made to the original source, to verify where this detailed information was obtained from.

The correct way to show this statement in an answer would therefore be:

- The radio galaxy Cygnus A has been found to contain a central dust lane and clear ‘opening cone morphology’, both of which
have been attributed to star formation commencing <1 Ga ago, with this timing determined from the colours emitted by these
regions (Jackson et al., 2002).

With the full reference listed at the end of the work, e.g.

- Jackson, N., Tadhunter, C. and Sparks, W.B. (2002) ‘Cynus A: stars, dust and cones’, Monthly Noticesof the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 301, no. 1, pp. 131–141.

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David Mayle

Transcript
David Mayle, Open University Course Team Chair

As far as we’re concerned, writing in your own words is your opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the concepts involved. It used to be said that lectures were a process
by which the notes of the professor became the notes of the student without ever passing through the mind of either. Therefore
we use in your own words as a proxy for demonstrating that it has passed through your mind. It means that the ideas need to be paraphrased, taken
apart, put back together again, ideally with reference to your own personal circumstances to demonstrate that you have actually
understood the concepts, issues and arguments involved.

In the early days of word processors you’d often see a lot of different fonts used, often in the same document, just because
youcould. With modern desktop technology it’s remarkably easy to cut and paste from a source document into your assignment.
What we don’t want to see is lots of gratuitous cut and paste, just because you can. What we want is the confidence that were
we to talk to you about the material, you could explain it to us. This is the basis of the viva voce examination, which is
still used as part of the examination process for a PhD.

Quotes – when should you use them? Well, whenever you want to agree, or disagree, or argue with the ideas contained in the quote.
Alternatively, when you need to juxtapose two, or maybe more, quotes for reasons of comparison, comparing styles or maybe
there’s a subtlety of interpretation that you wish to develop. You might also wish to indicate that the quote, from its time
many years ago, has actually wider applicability than originally indicated. When you shouldn’t be using quotes is merely to
demonstrate that you claim to have read the article concerned, and, additionally, just to demonstrate that you’ve mastered
the art of cut and paste on your computer.

Writing in your own words – there’s a danger in the use of the word ‘change’ and we don’t wish people to sort of pick up a
piece and deconstruct it. I’ve seen some extreme examples of plagiarism where students have carefully changed all of the proper
nouns, so Fred becomes George; company X becomes company Y; alternative verbs spring up, so instead of ‘initiating’ it becomes ‘starting’ or vice versa. And then they’ve re-ordered the sentence. They’ve put the second half of the sentence at the front, and the
first half of the sentence at the back. I could actually write a computer programme that could do that. It’s not difficult
and it’s certainly not intelligent.

The safest way, in terms of advice, is to actually try and avoid cut and paste completely. Read the bit you want to use. Don’t
copy it. Turn to your document and write it, as you understand it.

It’s been said that the best way to test your own understanding of something is to try and explain it to someone else. This
is what we’re looking for in our assignments. By forcing you to explain something to us in your own words, rather than just cut and pasted from elsewhere, you get to learn stuff. Now whether you are looking to gain qualifications,
or whether you are studying purely for self-development, it’s all about learning stuff.

I think plagiarism often starts from a lack of confidence in one’s own abilities. You feel that you’re very early on in a
learning curve about a particular topic and so you think, rather than be embarrassed by my words I’ll use somebody else’s,
and the problem there is if you use somebody else’s words you never develop the voice of your own. The thing to do, and the
OU system is actually rather good at this, is to try it, and then your tutor will write back and say ‘well that bit wasn’t bad, but that bit wasn't so good' and you can develop your voice. And the idea is that by the end of a course, by the end of a qualification, you will have
got the voice because you’ve tried, and because you’ve had the feedback. That’s it. If you’re always using somebody else’s
voice you will never develop one of your own.

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A student who has been plagiarised

Transcript

Well, I’ve been with the OU for seven years now so fairly experienced in the way the OU works and on each course you
often get together with a group of like-minded people. When I say get together, it’s usually online, possibly
with the odd phone call, but mostly online through FirstClass. And a group of us all working on a course and
would discuss around essay time various questions. And then I moved on to the next course, some of the people moved
on to the further course with me and we continued – I’d say collaborating, but collaborative learning is very
useful but it’s a long way from plagiarism. The way I got plagiarised – I suspect – I hope it was accidental
because I don’t think the person that did it – I really wouldn’t. This was their very, very last essay at the very
end of their degree – so whether it was laziness, whether it was just an error, I don’t know, but on two questions,
apparently, the last essay our papers matched very closely.

I got a very pleasant phone call from one of the people who deals with this kind of thing and just being contacted
absolutely makes your stomach hit the floor. You feel the hair rise on your back and the absolute terror of
thinking that you may have done something wrong is quite unparalleled actually because there you’ve been slogging
away for years, heading for a degree – or even on one course, even if it’s your first course – the idea if you’re
pretty certain that you haven’t plagiarised. That you might be accused of it is absolutely gutting. And then
you start thinking how am I going to prove that I didn’t? Did somebody else copy my work? What were they doing
if they copied my work? Because, in all honesty, obviously I’d have to have given them my work for them to copy. The
way that it happened with this particular essay was that, heading for the deadline, I was working with a colleague
on the same course and they told me there was no way they would get an extension. So when we both hit midnight
and I’d sent mine off and I assumed they’d sent theirs off; I then sent them a copy of mine and then found they’d
got a week’s extension after all and I guess they just picked a couple of my questions and wrote them in. I mean,
more fool me for trusting anyone, but this is somebody I’d worked with over two years. It wasn’t the first
course I’d worked on them with and I was just absolutely baffled that they’d do anything that would get either
of us in trouble. I can totally understand if they just took an easy option but it’s my fault for giving – for putting
temptation in their way I feel, because I know they’re a very able student and they’re the ones who’ve been
penalised, not me, because it was my work that they plagiarised. I feel a very strong sense of guilt for it
because I let them see my work and, you know, the OU tells you not to do that and I did it. I thought I’d done it
beyond the deadline but I still must take some responsibility for this.

The greatest fear of what may happen to you is that you’ve put your whole degree at risk. Fortunately, that isn’t
the case in my case. It’s tainted my degree to a certain extent but not – I’m comfortable that I’ve done nothing
hideously wrong and my degree will be genuinely earned but– just – it’s really hard to explain how … it’s
just I’ve blotted my copy book and I’ve let the University down, I’ve let myself down, I’ve let other students down.
It doesn’t feel great.

I would say to other students it’s very tempting sometimes. We’re all under pressure. We’ve all got often very complicated
lives. We’re all doing other stuff. We’re trying to earn a living. There are family interruptions. There’s
endless things that can interfere with your work. Don’t think you won’t get caught if you plagiarise. I can
only imagine that’s what this person thought. That: ‘Oh, it won’t make much difference.’ And sure enough, the plagiarism
software caught them out.

Don’t get caught out. What’s the point? You could really – you won’t feel great – believe you me.

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Professor Clive Emsley

Transcript
Professor Clive Emsley

Generally common knowledge is something that you don’t have to look up. It’s the obvious. Two plus two equals four.
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet. The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918. These are things which are so generally accepted
you don’t have to look them up. We almost imbibe them with our mother’s milk.

Common knowledge in the Arts is really no different from common knowledge in anything else. We know that Dickens
wrote Oliver Twist. We know that the first atomic bomb was dropped in 1945. These are simply things that we know, and that are
related to issues within the broad disciplines in the Arts. The examples about dropping bombs, the examples about
war, obviously are common knowledge in history. The examples about who wrote what, that Leonardo da Vinci
painted the Mona Lisa. These are simply things almost, that you could say, we know without really knowing how we know them.

The decision as to what common knowledge is, essentially is up to the student. It does get a bit messy the closer
that you focus in on an issue. If you are writing in broad terms about wars, about authorships, then you
will employ common knowledge: Joseph Conrad wrote The Secret Agent or Joseph Conrad’s novel The Secret Agent because that’s simply something that you’re referring to in passing. Similarly, Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, something that you’re referring to in passing. If, however, you are focusing on a question about the authorship
of novels or plays, then you might have to start referencing issues of authorship. I suppose the best examples
of this would be the dispute over whether or not Shakespeare wrote those plays. A lot of people have asked whether
it is conceivable that a relatively simple actor from the wilds of Warwickshire could write this fantastic poetry,
and some people have come up with the answer that it’s absolutely impossible; it must have been somebody
else. Now, the moment that you start focusing down on authorship, and debates about authorship, that’s really
when common knowledge ceases to be a tool that you can employ, and you have to get down to referencing.
You have to say, who says Shakespeare couldn’t have written those plays? And who did write those plays, given the
way sentence structure, the way the poetry has been put together, in comparison with the way other poems
and other sentences are put together by other playwrights of the period?

And here’s another example, going back to the issue of wars. Now, in common knowledge terms the First World War is
1914 to 1918. The Second World War is 1939 to 1945. Common knowledge that we all accept, or at least that
we all accept in our part of Europe. Now, if you come from the Balkans, you may well say, well actually
the First World War, or the series of conflicts that encapsulate the First World War, begin in 1912 and go on to
1922. That’s the period of the First World War for a Greek or a Turk, or any other of the Balkan peoples.
With regard to the Second World War, 1939 to 1945 – well if you’re an American, the Second World War starts
in 1941. If you’re Chinese and Japanese the Second World War starts in the middle of the 1930s.

Now, when you are employing, when you are investigating those perspectives, that’s when you need to start referencing.
The closer that you are focusing down on an issue, the more common knowledge is beginning to be questionable;
is beginning to be unpicked by your work.

Academic judgement is when you go beyond common knowledge, and when you recognise that not everybody is actually
going to agree with what I’m saying here, or what I’m saying here is drawn from the judgement of other people.
And when you use the judgement or the conclusions of other people, that’s when you have to start referencing.
You need to say who the individual was, and there’s not a lot of point in saying, ‘well, some historians say that’, or ‘some literary critics say that’. You really ought to specify at least one or two of those literary critics. Otherwise the whole thing is
left in the air. We don’t know, we who are marking your work, don’t know who you’re talking about. Well, we might
know who you’re talking about, but can we be sure that you know who you’re talking about? So that’s when you need
to reference.

The other thing is absolutely essential. You should not lift other people’s work – cut and paste into the middle
of an assignment, an essay, or whatever – without referencing it. It is astonishing the way large numbers
of people do this, and do it thinking that we won’t actually notice. Generally speaking, associate lecturers
and other people do notice when the language of an essay changes. And if you take a paragraph out of an historian, or a literary
critic, or an art critic, or a philosopher, and just put it in your essay without referencing it, it will
almost certainly be picked up. That’s poor academic judgement on the part of the student, and it suggests probably
that the student is not understanding either the issues that are being discussed, that they can’t tell the
difference between common knowledge and where people are going beyond common knowledge, and actually questioning
issues. That’s what a university education is all about. It’s questioning issues, often issues of common
knowledge.

Now, of course, this doesn’t mean to say that you play everything safe and that you reference absolutely everything.
You have to think about what you’re doing. You have to recognise that there are some things which are, if
you like, common knowledge, which are unchanging. But there are other things, which are the result of careful,
constructive thought.

Now you shouldn’t just lift chunks from other people’s work and put them in, because one of the key things that we
are looking for is not whether you can go to Wikipedia and slice out a chunk and paste it carefully into
the centre of your essay. But when you have a much more sophisticated argument, when you go beyond the common
knowledge, when you’re into thinking carefully about an issue and incorporating other people’s thoughts
about an issue, that’s when you need to reference.

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Stephen Serjeant, Senior Lecturer in Science

Transcript
Stephen Serjeant, Senior Lecturer in Science

In general if you’re writing an essay or a scientific report you are claiming to be the originator of that information, either by your own experiments or your own calculations,
or your cross comparisons of other results. This is always true unless you say otherwise. And you could do that, for example, by citing the place where you got that information.
The only other exception is if you’re saying something that is so well known that it’s obvious to every reader
that you’re not the originator of this result, and this is what I think is meant by common knowledge. So, for example,
‘that the Universe is expanding’ – if you say that in a piece of academic writing, people aren’t going to assume that you are the discoverer
of that because that’s well known, that’s someone else. I think this is very similar across disciplines.
Science is not particularly unusual here.

The key test whether something is or isn’t common knowledge is whether a reader might think from reading your report
that you have generated this information from your own experiments or your own calculations. Remember, this is the default
assumption for anything you’re writing. For example, if you take a diagram from the web and stick it in your essay
or report, and you don’t say where you got it from it’s going to look very like you made it yourself – okay?
And, so, not saying where you got it, is regarded as a sort of fraud, scientific fraud, and this is taken
very seriously. Also taking a direct quote from someone else and not putting it in inverted commas is a
way of passing those words off as your own words and that’s a similar sort of fraud. It’s all plagiarism.

But if you want to quote a number of key points from some well researched or well understood area, it’s okay to cite
a textbook or review article for all of these results provided that it’s clear from your phrasing that your
citation refers to all of these points. Alternatively, you could hunt down the original references such
as Edwin Hubble’s original discovery of the expansion of the Universe, but only do that if you’ve read them because you may be surprised at the content.

Academic judgement is an assessment of your readership. Are your readers likely to believe that because you say,
for example, ‘humans evolved from other primates’, that you’re claiming to be the one who’s found that out?
Well, maybe not in that case, but if there’s any danger that they might make that assumption about anything
else that you’ve got from elsewhere then cite your source. Is it better when in doubt to reference? Absolutely.
Yes.

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